The evolution of knights

What do you mean “evolution of knights“? Knights were always exactly the same during the Middle Ages. Everyone knows the Middle Ages were just a dark period where nothing happened and evolved, right?

…

You know where I am going with this. Yet, the consensus against the so-called Middle Ages has always infuriated me. Under the influence of Renaissance thinkers looking for a reason to elevate themselves, many today still see a shallow period, a barbaric waiting room sandwiched between the classical period and the Renaissance. For my part, I see it has a rich period of history, with its ups and downs, its innovations and refinements. Few things show that better than how knights came to be and evolved. Now, if you will indulge me, let‘s begin.

I will focus our study on the medieval knight on two of its most defining features in popular imagination. First, it has characteristic heavy armour. Then, the code, honour and romance we often imagine as a vague sense of “chivalry“.

But before that, our knight needs a horse! This is where we will begin. Indeed, you might be surprised to learn that horses were extremely uncommon in Europe‘s warfare. Sure, the Roman Empire had some cavalry, but after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, they disappeared from sight. The proto-European kingdoms that replaced the Romans had fewer resources, no horsemanship expertise and a far less robust military system all around. Keeping, breeding and training war horses was a colossal task that they simply were not up to. We also have to keep in mind that the stirrup had not been invented yet, making riding on a horse an uncomfortable and less than enticing endeavour. It even came to a point where, in the seventh century, the Lombards were the only ones in Europe known for using horses. And even then, nothing near what Arabic armies of the time did. What the proto-Europeans DID use extensively was armoured footmen. Still, they were not what we would call “heavy-armoured “. Their armour was often unsurprisingly in the late-Roman style: conical helmets (made in 3 pieces) with scale shirts. Sturdy, but still affordable and flexible. Weapons of choice included swords, broad-bladed spears and round shields. The first element proto-europeans would master (or re-master from the Roman perspective) would be discipline and formation. With this mastered around the sixth century, mobility became less of a priority leading some influential figures to focus on sturdier armour. Here, we can cite the very well-known example of Charles Martel. A real pioneer in the “disciplined shocktrooper“ vision that knights would become. This is something his Carolegian successors would develop further.

Talking about anything Early Middle Ages and NOT talking about Charlemagne would be heresy, so let‘s focus on him next. As in so many matters, Charlemagne‘s supremacy is a defining moment for knighthood. First, Charlemagne would be the one to conquer the Lombards and almost immediately recruit them as cavalrymen. This would begin anew horsemanship in Europe‘s warfare. Then, Charlemagne would also maintain an elite battalion called the Paladins (that‘s right: paladins were Charlemagne‘s). They are the first warriors I would call “knights“, even more so considering they feature prominently in the Song of Roland - a critical piece of literature in the formation of the spirit of knighthood in later centuries. And yes, before you ask, we do have some historical evidence for the Paladin‘s existence - they were not just stories. Yet, they weren‘t *quite* knights either. They still wore late-Roman style armour used before although small mail shirts began to appear here and there in records. Their duties strictly focus on defending the Emperor (and certainly not helping damsels in distress or losing themselves in fairy lands). Most importantly, the stirrup was invented at this time. Being a cavalier was now easier than ever before, just not a fad yet.

The Carolingian emperors would also require every lord under them to bring their own weapon and horse to war. This was critical in reintroducing horsemanship as a symbol of status in Europe. As every nobleman was now a horse rider, riding quickly gained some prestige. Knighthood slowly became a “code“ reserved for aristocracy - a process that would truly end in the 12th century. At first, any knight could appoint another, but later only a king could do so. This shows how the knight‘s reputation rose with time.

Some years later, fighting equipment would finally begin to change under the influence of the Vikings. Circular shields, axes and spears became largely adopted. The iconic Viking aggressive fighting style would also insinuate itself in Europe‘s psyche (I will go back later on that). After the Vikings, the Normans would be the next major source of influence armour-wise. They were the ones to truly popularize mail shirts. These were knee-length at first, but would lengthen with time. The true beginning of the heavy-armoured cavalry we know of.

The sheer scale of cavalry also changed. At first, cavalry groups were small (maybe no more than 50 men). But, mostly during the 12th century and the crusades, they progressively grew to hundreds and even thousands. It goes without saying that tactics had to be adapted. It is during the crusades that we find the first evidence of synchronized cavalry charges. This is not something Charlemagne could afford.

And yes, the creation of religious orders like the Knights Templars did play a role in the globalization of the chivalry spirit. It is also during the crusades that the knight as a military threat became known to the wider world. The Byzantine Empire and various Arabic states learned to fear the Norman cavalry (somewhat). The full chain mail armour was now also commonplace.

Speaking of armour, the 12th century is when armour really gained some weight too. Large plated armour came to the scene. Leg and arm armour would increase in size during the 13th century and metal gauntlets would pop up here and there. By the end of that century, unified breastplates appear. By the start 14th century, we had knights - real knights.

Surprisingly, the 14th century would already mark the start of the fall of knights. With scale, the feudal system simply became too inefficient. Kings served by thousands of feudal lords had to call their best soldiers months in advance, only for them to arrive progressively... and at the king's expense while they waited for everyone else. Just like with the samurai, the declining role of knights in knights was followed by their ideological rise. This would be the century to bring forward the romantic side of chivalry. The tales of King Arthur became common, the already mentioned Song of Roland was popular and Jean de Meun's version of The Romance of the Rose became the talk of the century.

The 14th century also became the “golden age“ of medieval armour. The intricate and beautiful art pieces crowding museums mostly come from this period. There were two leading styles. First, the Italian style led by the Missaglia family in Milan. Smooth, streamlined and rounded shapes. Italian-style armour looks like it's made of one single piece of metal (a bit like a turtle - a very shiny turtle). Helmets commonly have a large oval opening for the eyes. They focused on elegance and mobility. Then, there is the German style. As anything stereotypically German, functionality strove over form. Heavier, sturdier than their Italian cousins. Way more angular and aggressive looking too. The gorget (neck protection) and the pauldrons (shoulder protection) are often prominent. The helmet probably had nothing but a slight horizontal opening.

Both were an avenue for expression. For Italians, in the smithing of the metal, its shape and the accoutrement. For Germans, in the intricate engravings and decorating elements carved in the armour itself.

And this ends our little survey into knights and their armours! I hope you enjoyed it somewhat. Maybe even learned a thing or two. In any case, see you next time.

References

• Arms and armor of the medieval knight: an illustrated history of weaponry in the Middle Ages, David Edge & John Miles Paddock, 1996.
• European Armor circa 1066 to circa 1700, Claude Blair, 1958.